Innritun nýnemahópa og námsframvinda í framhaldsskóla út frá efnislegri, félagslegri og menningarlegri stöðu nemenda á tímum samkeppnisprófa.
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University of Iceland, School of Education
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Það varðar miklu fyrir bæði einstaklinga og þjóðfélag að nemendum vegni vel í námi og því ekki að undra að bæði stjórnvöld og almenningur hafi sýnt framhaldsskólum áhuga. Framhaldsskólastigið hefur verið í deiglu breytinga af hálfu yfirvalda menntamála en á sama tíma sætt gagnrýni fræðimanna sem hafa dregið upp mynd af takmörkuðum framgangi í námi og skólakerfi sem endurnýi félagslega lagskiptingu þjóðfélagsins. Á fyrsta áratug 21. aldar var tímabili fjölgunar framhaldsskóla við það að ljúka. Athygli yfirvalda beindist að aukinni skilvirkni framhaldsskólakerfisins með styttri námstíma og minna brotthvarfi nemenda. Átök í þjóðfélaginu um þessar breytingar ásamt áralangri reynslu af kennslu í framhaldsskóla vakti spurningar höfundar um hvaða
félagslegu gangvirki væru að verki í framhaldsskólakerfinu og urðu þær hvati þessarar rannsóknar.
Rannsökuð var innritun nýnema í framhaldsskóla og námsframvinda þeirra út frá efnislegri, félagslegri og menningarlegri stöðu þeirra á tíma samkeppnisprófa, sem voru hin samræmdu próf við lok grunnskóla; próf sem réðu því hver gæti innritast í hvaða framhaldsskóla. Rannsóknin tekur til árgangs nemenda sem hóf framhaldsskólanám árið 2006 og honum fylgt eftir fram til 2012.
Rannsóknarspurningar voru um að hvaða marki einkenni þeirra hópa nýnema sem innrituðust í einstaka skóla væru til marks um félagslega aðgreiningu og hver tengsl þjóðfélagsstöðu og námsgengis í framhaldsskóla hafi verið. Til þess að svara þeim var ljósi varpað á tengsl þjóðfélagsstöðu og námsárangurs meðal nýnemahópa framhaldsskóla, hvernig nemendur notuðu möguleika sína til þess að velja skóla, hver námsstaða hópsins var í lok rannsóknartímabilsins 2012 og hvernig þessi atriði tengdust þjóðfélagsstöðu nemenda og einstaka framhaldsskólum.
Í ritgerðinni var leitað skýringa á þeim félagslegu ferlum sem réðu gangi mála við innritun og námsframvindu. Leitað var svara við því hvort skýringar á því í hvaða skóla nemendur innrituðust beri að leita í félagslegum bakgrunni þeirra eða í eigin framlagi í námi, hvort og hver áhrif af rýmri reglum við innritun á höfuðborgarsvæðinu hafi verið á þá félagslegu ferla sem að verki voru við innritunina. Rannsóknarefni af þessu tagi hafa fengið vaxandi athygli bæði alþjóðlega og á Íslandi. Til grundvallar rannsókninni voru notaðar tvenns konar fræðahefðir innan félagsfræði menntunar. Annars vegar kenning Bourdieu um mikilvægi skólakerfisins í endurnýjun félagslegra yfirráðatengsla í krafti samsvörunar menningarauðs nemenda og skóla. Hins vegar kenning Coleman um hlut athafna nemenda út frá þjóðfélagsstöðu í félagslegum
ferlum sem móti bæði athafnirnar og þær félagslegu aðstæður sem þarfnast skýringa.Byggt var á gögnum frá opinberri stjórnsýslu og úr fjölþjóðlegu yfirgripsmiklu rannsóknarverkefni (PISA). Gögnin voru annars vegar skrár Hagstofu Íslands yfir skólavist nemenda og hvaða prófum þeir luku á tímabilinu og hins vegar svör nemenda við spurningum sem lagðar voru fyrir þá í PISA könnuninni vorið 2006. Gögnin taka til þess árgangs nemenda sem fæddur var árið 1990. Þau eru með þversniði varðandi námsárangur og þjóðfélagsstöðu en langsniði varðandi námsframvindu á framhaldsskólastigi. Mikilvægustu breytur rannsóknarinnar voru efnisleg, félagsleg og menningarleg staða nemenda eða þjóðfélagsstaða, viðhorf nemenda til grunnskólans sem þau gengu í og einkunnir þeirra á samræmdum prófum í stærðfræði og íslensku. Breytunni fyrir þjóðfélagsstöðu var oftast skipt upp í þá kvarða yfir menntun foreldra, stöðu þeirra á vinnumarkaði og efnislegar eigur heimila sem mynduðu hann. Við tölfræðilega úrvinnslu var sett fram lýsandi tölfræði og gerðar voru línulegar- og tvíkosta fjölbreytu aðhvarfsgreiningar fyrir nemendahópinn í heild og fyrir einstaka
framhaldsskóla. Einnig voru gerðar línulegar- og tvíkosta fjölstiga fjölbreytu
aðhvarfsgreiningar þar sem athugað var hvaða munur kom fram á milli nemendahópa framhaldsskóla leiðrétt fyrir einkennum einstakra nemenda. Þeim aðferðum hefur lítið verið beitt í íslenskum menntarannsóknum fram til þessa en ritgerðin er framlag í að kynnast möguleikum slíkrar tölfræðigreiningar og að koma orðfæri hennar á íslenskt mál.
Niðurstöður rannsóknarinnar sýna að félagsleg aðgreining var áberandi við innritun í einstaka skóla og munaði miklu á þjóðfélagsstöðu nýnemahópa þeirra skóla sem innrituðu nemendur með hæstu stöðuna og þeirra sem innrituðu nemendur með lægstu stöðuna. Munur á meðaleinkunnum nýnemahópa í íslensku og stærðfræði á samræmdum prófum við lok grunnskólans var einnig mikill. Hægt er að túlka innritunina sem félagslegt aðgreiningarferli, en með þeim fyrirvara að takmörkuð tengsl einstakra þátta hins félagslega uppruna við mun milli framhaldsskóla draga úr
skýringargildi þeirrar hugmyndar. Einnig er hægt að túlka niðurstöður tölfræðilegra greininga sem svo að nám nemenda hafi verið lykilatriði fyrir vegferð þeirra um framhaldsskólakerfið frekar en félagslegur bakgrunnur. Fyrri námsárangur reyndist hafa meira að segja bæði um innritun og námsgengi í framhaldsskóla en allar aðrar breytur sem athugaðar voru. Þetta gilti bæði fyrir hóp nemenda í heild og fyrir framhaldsskóla sem heild. Einkunnir í stærðfræði í grunnskóla skýrðu breytileikann í námslokum með sterkum og markverðum hætti. Samkvæmt því skipti takmörkuðu máli fyrir námsframvindu á framhaldsskólastigi í hvaða tiltekna framhaldsskóla nemendur
innrituðust. Þættir tengdir menntun og menningu heimila, þættir á borð við lengd skólagöngu foreldra, hámenningarlegar eigur og bókaeign heimila, tengdust námsárangri, innritun og námslokum á framhaldsskólastigi meira heldur en þættir tengdir atvinnustöðu, efnislegum gæðum eða tekjum heimila. Athygli vekur að stúlkur af lágum stigum virðast hafa notað góðan námsárangur í grunnskóla til þess að innritast í tiltekna framhaldsskóla
þar sem þjóðfélagsstaða var almennt hærri en þeirra sjálfra. Einnig virðast hærri einkunnir á samræmdum prófum hafa verið nemendum á landsbyggðinni hvatning til þess að halda áfram námi.
Ritgerðin bætir við þekkingu á því hvernig innritun var háttað þegar samkeppnispróf réðu möguleikum nemenda á innritun í skóla í norrænu skólakerfi verðleika. Framhaldsskólakerfið hefur tekið breytingum frá því þessi ritgerð drepur niður fæti. Samræmd samkeppnispróf eru ekki lengur lögð fyrir nemendur í lok grunnskóla og námstími til stúdentsprófs hefur verið styttur. Stjórnvöld menntamála hafa lýst nauðsyn þess að frekari skipulagsbreytingar verði gerðar á skólastigi framhaldsskólans á borð við sameiningar framhaldsskóla. Það hlýtur að vera umhugsunarefni að svo mikill munur skuli koma fram á þjóðfélagsstöðu nýnemahópa framhaldsskóla. Hvort sem það er einkenni skilvirkni kerfisins, stéttaskiptingar, eða bæði, hlýtur það einkenni framhaldsskólakerfisins að fá athygli stjórnvalda. Áhugavert væri að rannsaka hvaða áhrif afnám samræmdra prófa hefur haft á félagslega aðgreiningu innan framhaldsskólakerfisins. Ritgerðin er því framlag til stefnumótunar í framhaldsskólakerfinu með því að draga fram eiginleika þess og virkni áður en það fékk þá umgjörð sem nú er. Þrátt fyrir hina félagslegu aðgreiningu er ályktað að skólakerfi framhaldsskóla hafi haft sterk einkenni þess að vera sanngjarn samvinnuvettvangur þar sem verðleikar hafi ráðið
för frekar en uppruni. Þörf er á frekari rannsóknum til þess að greina skipulag
skólastarfs og skólakerfis framhaldsskóla. Tryggja þarf að nemendur njóti jafnræðis þannig að hæfileikar þeirra og atorka ráði vegferð þeirra í skólakerfinu
It is of great importance to both individuals and society that students succeed in their studies; therefore, it is not surprising that both the government and the public have shown a keen interest in upper secondary schools in Iceland. The upper secondary level has been undergoing changes initiated by educational authorities, while simultaneously facing criticism from scholars who have portrayed the system as making limited academic progress and structured in a way that perpetuates the social stratification of society. During the first decade of the 21st century, the period of expansion in the number of upper secondary schools was coming to an end. Authorities shifted their focus towards increasing the efficiency of the upper secondary school system by shortening the duration of upper secondary education leading to the matriculation examination from four years to three and reducing student dropout rates. The societal debates surrounding these changes, combined with years of experience teaching at the upper secondary level, prompted the author to question the social mechanisms at play within the school system—questions that became the driving force behind this research. The enrolment of new students in upper secondary schools and their academic progress were examined in relation to their economic, social and cultural status during the era of competitive examinations—namely, the standardised tests taken at the end of compulsory education, which determined eligibility for admission to specific upper secondary schools. The present study focuses on a cohort of students who began upper secondary education in 2006 and were followed through to 2012. The research questions address the extent to which the characteristics of student groups admitted to individual schools reflected social stratification and what the relationship was between socioeconomic status and academic attainment in upper secondary education. To answer these questions, the study explored the connections between socioeconomic status and academic performance among newly recruited student cohorts. This research examines how students utilised their opportunities to choose schools, the academic standing of the cohort at the end of the study period in 2012, and how these factors were linked to students’ social backgrounds and the individual upper secondary schools. This thesis seeks to explain the social processes that influenced student enrolment and academic progression. It explores whether the choice of school could be attributed to students’ social backgrounds or to their individual academic contributions, and whether more flexible admission policies in the capital area affect the social mechanisms at play during the enrolment process. Research topics of this nature have received increasing attention both internationally and in Iceland. The study was grounded in two theoretical traditions within the sociology of education. The first is Bourdieu’s theory on the role of the educational system in reproducing social power relations through the alignment of students’ cultural capital with that of the schools. The second theoretical tradition involves Coleman’s theory on the role of students’ actions, shaped by their social status, within social processes that influence both behaviour and the social conditions requiring explanation. This research was based on data from public administration and a large-scale international study (PISA). The data included records from Statistics Iceland on school attendance and the exams students completed during the study period, as well as responses from students to the PISA survey conducted in spring 2006. The data pertained to the cohort born in 1990 and provided cross-sectional information on academic achievement and social status, as well as longitudinal data on academic progression at the upper secondary level. The most important variables considered in the study were students’ material, social and cultural status—or socioeconomic status—their attitudes towards the compulsory school they attended, and their grades on standardised exams in mathematics and Icelandic. Socioeconomic status was consistently broken down into indicators of parental education, labour market position and household material assets. Statistical analysis included descriptive statistics and both linear and binary logistic multivariate regression analyses for the entire student cohort and individual upper secondary schools. Additionally, multilevel linear and binary logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine differences between student groups across schools, adjusted for individual student characteristics. These methods have rarely been used in Icelandic educational research, and this thesis introduces their potential and terminology into the Icelandic academic discourse. Study findings reveal that social differentiation was prevalent in the enrolment process across schools, with significant disparities in the socioeconomic status of student cohorts between schools admitting students from the highest and lowest social strata. There were also substantial differences in average grades in Icelandic and mathematics on standardised exams at the end of compulsory schooling. Enrolment can be interpreted as a process of social differentiation, although the limited correlation between specific aspects of social origin and differences between schools weakens the explanatory power of this interpretation. Statistical analyses further suggest that students’ academic performance was a key factor in their trajectory through the upper secondary system, rather than their social background. Prior academic achievement had a stronger influence on both enrolment and academic progress than any other variable examined. This held true for both the student cohort as a whole and for the upper secondary schools collectively. Grades in mathematics at the compulsory level were particularly strong and significant predictors of academic outcomes. Accordingly, the specific upper secondary school in which students enrolled had a limited impact on their academic progress. Factors related to education and cultural capital in the home—such as parents’ education background, possession of high-cultural assets, and household book ownership—were more strongly associated with academic achievement, enrolment and completion at the upper secondary level than factors related to occupational status, wealth or income. It is noteworthy that girls from lower social strata appear to have used strong academic performance in compulsory school to gain admission to specific upper secondary schools where the general socioeconomic status was higher than their own. Furthermore, higher grades on standardised exams seem to have served as motivation for students in areas outside the capital area to continue their education. This thesis contributes to the understanding of how enrolment was organised during the period when competitive high-stakes testing determined students’ opportunities to enter schools that were intended to be part of a meritocratic educational system. The upper secondary school system has changed since the time covered by this thesis. Standardised competitive exams are no longer administered at the end of compulsory schooling, and the duration of studies leading to the matriculation examination has been shortened. Educational authorities have emphasised the need for further structural reforms at the upper secondary level, such as the merging of schools. It is noteworthy that significant differences in the socioeconomic status of student cohorts across upper secondary schools were observed. Whether this reflects systemic efficiency, social stratification, or both, it is a characteristic of the upper secondary school system that warrants the attention of policymakers. It would be of interest to investigate the impact of abolishing standardised exams on social differentiation within the upper secondary school system. Thus, this thesis serves as a contribution to policy development in upper secondary education by highlighting the system’s characteristics and functioning prior to its current framework. Despite the observed social differentiation, the thesis concludes that the upper secondary school system exhibited strong features of a fair and cooperative environment where merit, rather than origin, guided students’ educational paths. Further research is needed to analyse the organisation of school activities and the structure of the upper secondary school system. It is essential to ensure that students are treated equitably and to propose measures that guarantee equal opportunities, allowing their talents and efforts to determine their educational trajectories.
It is of great importance to both individuals and society that students succeed in their studies; therefore, it is not surprising that both the government and the public have shown a keen interest in upper secondary schools in Iceland. The upper secondary level has been undergoing changes initiated by educational authorities, while simultaneously facing criticism from scholars who have portrayed the system as making limited academic progress and structured in a way that perpetuates the social stratification of society. During the first decade of the 21st century, the period of expansion in the number of upper secondary schools was coming to an end. Authorities shifted their focus towards increasing the efficiency of the upper secondary school system by shortening the duration of upper secondary education leading to the matriculation examination from four years to three and reducing student dropout rates. The societal debates surrounding these changes, combined with years of experience teaching at the upper secondary level, prompted the author to question the social mechanisms at play within the school system—questions that became the driving force behind this research. The enrolment of new students in upper secondary schools and their academic progress were examined in relation to their economic, social and cultural status during the era of competitive examinations—namely, the standardised tests taken at the end of compulsory education, which determined eligibility for admission to specific upper secondary schools. The present study focuses on a cohort of students who began upper secondary education in 2006 and were followed through to 2012. The research questions address the extent to which the characteristics of student groups admitted to individual schools reflected social stratification and what the relationship was between socioeconomic status and academic attainment in upper secondary education. To answer these questions, the study explored the connections between socioeconomic status and academic performance among newly recruited student cohorts. This research examines how students utilised their opportunities to choose schools, the academic standing of the cohort at the end of the study period in 2012, and how these factors were linked to students’ social backgrounds and the individual upper secondary schools. This thesis seeks to explain the social processes that influenced student enrolment and academic progression. It explores whether the choice of school could be attributed to students’ social backgrounds or to their individual academic contributions, and whether more flexible admission policies in the capital area affect the social mechanisms at play during the enrolment process. Research topics of this nature have received increasing attention both internationally and in Iceland. The study was grounded in two theoretical traditions within the sociology of education. The first is Bourdieu’s theory on the role of the educational system in reproducing social power relations through the alignment of students’ cultural capital with that of the schools. The second theoretical tradition involves Coleman’s theory on the role of students’ actions, shaped by their social status, within social processes that influence both behaviour and the social conditions requiring explanation. This research was based on data from public administration and a large-scale international study (PISA). The data included records from Statistics Iceland on school attendance and the exams students completed during the study period, as well as responses from students to the PISA survey conducted in spring 2006. The data pertained to the cohort born in 1990 and provided cross-sectional information on academic achievement and social status, as well as longitudinal data on academic progression at the upper secondary level. The most important variables considered in the study were students’ material, social and cultural status—or socioeconomic status—their attitudes towards the compulsory school they attended, and their grades on standardised exams in mathematics and Icelandic. Socioeconomic status was consistently broken down into indicators of parental education, labour market position and household material assets. Statistical analysis included descriptive statistics and both linear and binary logistic multivariate regression analyses for the entire student cohort and individual upper secondary schools. Additionally, multilevel linear and binary logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine differences between student groups across schools, adjusted for individual student characteristics. These methods have rarely been used in Icelandic educational research, and this thesis introduces their potential and terminology into the Icelandic academic discourse. Study findings reveal that social differentiation was prevalent in the enrolment process across schools, with significant disparities in the socioeconomic status of student cohorts between schools admitting students from the highest and lowest social strata. There were also substantial differences in average grades in Icelandic and mathematics on standardised exams at the end of compulsory schooling. Enrolment can be interpreted as a process of social differentiation, although the limited correlation between specific aspects of social origin and differences between schools weakens the explanatory power of this interpretation. Statistical analyses further suggest that students’ academic performance was a key factor in their trajectory through the upper secondary system, rather than their social background. Prior academic achievement had a stronger influence on both enrolment and academic progress than any other variable examined. This held true for both the student cohort as a whole and for the upper secondary schools collectively. Grades in mathematics at the compulsory level were particularly strong and significant predictors of academic outcomes. Accordingly, the specific upper secondary school in which students enrolled had a limited impact on their academic progress. Factors related to education and cultural capital in the home—such as parents’ education background, possession of high-cultural assets, and household book ownership—were more strongly associated with academic achievement, enrolment and completion at the upper secondary level than factors related to occupational status, wealth or income. It is noteworthy that girls from lower social strata appear to have used strong academic performance in compulsory school to gain admission to specific upper secondary schools where the general socioeconomic status was higher than their own. Furthermore, higher grades on standardised exams seem to have served as motivation for students in areas outside the capital area to continue their education. This thesis contributes to the understanding of how enrolment was organised during the period when competitive high-stakes testing determined students’ opportunities to enter schools that were intended to be part of a meritocratic educational system. The upper secondary school system has changed since the time covered by this thesis. Standardised competitive exams are no longer administered at the end of compulsory schooling, and the duration of studies leading to the matriculation examination has been shortened. Educational authorities have emphasised the need for further structural reforms at the upper secondary level, such as the merging of schools. It is noteworthy that significant differences in the socioeconomic status of student cohorts across upper secondary schools were observed. Whether this reflects systemic efficiency, social stratification, or both, it is a characteristic of the upper secondary school system that warrants the attention of policymakers. It would be of interest to investigate the impact of abolishing standardised exams on social differentiation within the upper secondary school system. Thus, this thesis serves as a contribution to policy development in upper secondary education by highlighting the system’s characteristics and functioning prior to its current framework. Despite the observed social differentiation, the thesis concludes that the upper secondary school system exhibited strong features of a fair and cooperative environment where merit, rather than origin, guided students’ educational paths. Further research is needed to analyse the organisation of school activities and the structure of the upper secondary school system. It is essential to ensure that students are treated equitably and to propose measures that guarantee equal opportunities, allowing their talents and efforts to determine their educational trajectories.
Lýsing
Efnisorð
Innritun, Námsframvinda, Framhaldsskóli, Doktorsritgerðir, Enrolment, Upper secondary high school