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The interlinkages of design and effectiveness of governing bodies in the United Nations development system
(Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 2025) Kristinn, Helgason; Klaus Goetz, Bernhard Zangl; Department of Political Science; Félagsvísindasvið
Multilateralism is encountering strong political headwinds at both the global and national level. The high economic, social and environmental costs of recurrent crises like the COVID-19 pandemic, the war in Ukraine, and climate change, have led to growing questions about the performance legitimacy of multilateralism. Many multilateral institutions are no longer felt to be able to deliver the public value which was their original reason for being. The UN Secretary-General, Antonio Guterres, in Our Common Agenda, has called for a reinvigoration of multilateralism, including the institutions that sustain it like the United Nations. The dissertation focuses on governance of the UN development system, a group of 43 entities that receive contributions for operational activities for development that collectively accounted for about 75 per cent of all the work of the Organization in 2021. More specifically, the dissertation examines whether the design of governing bodies in the UN development system is correlated with their performance and, if so, which institutional rules may be particularly important in this regard. There has been limited research on the interlinkages of design and performance of governing bodies of international organizations like those that are part of the UN development system, and the dissertation aims to contribute to addressing this lacunae. A mixed method approach is applied to the research process by relying on a combination of literature review, new data collection and UN management information systems. Since 1969, Member States, the Secretary-General and other stakeholders have regularly commissioned expert reports and studies on reform of the UN development system. The dissertation shows that the governance related recommendations that are common to this large number of expert reports and studies and advocating for consolidation of governance structures, more precise rules stipulating representation and participation in governing bodies, and enhanced working methods of governing bodies, have strong support from both academic theory and empirical evidence. The liberalization of funding rules and practices since the 1990s, resulting in an overwhelming share of voluntary, strictly earmarked contributions for operational activities of the UN system, has been a major causal driver of the many governance challenges facing the Organization. While the liberalization of funding rules and practices has led to high growth in the volume of contributions, it has also fundamentally weakened the ability of governing bodies to perform their mandated role and functions such as providing strategic guidance and vision, ensuring policy implementation, monitoring organizational performance and having an effective overview of the work of both entities and the UN development system as a whole. The volume, quality, substantive focus and destination of operational activities of the UN system are now primarily determined by the donors individually, not Member States collectively at the level of governing bodies. As a result, most governing bodies in the UN development system no longer retain the authority to set programme priorities, distribute funds, create new programmes, and provide oversight and accountability of programme delivery at the country and global level. Another corollary of the liberalization of funding rules and practices has been increased fragmentation, overlaps and duplication of activities, as UN entities have a strong incentive to continuously expand their mandates and functions as a strategy to reduce resource uncertainty. This has led to rapid growth in non-core functions, i.e., those activities not directly related to the core purposes and central mandates of UN entities. The design of most governing bodies in the UN development system has been underpinned by the principle of equitable geographical representation. The application of this principle, however, doesn´t enable all Member States to contribute equitably to intergovernmental decision-making. A review of the composition of governing bodies in the UN development system reveals that a sizeable number of Member States do not participate in II the work of any governing body; the least-developed countries are significantly under-represented in governing bodies; and high-income countries are much more likely to participate in the governance of UN entities. In addition, the top programme and donor countries, which bear almost all the cost of intergovernmental decision-making on operational activities, account for only a small share of the seats on governing bodies in the UN development system. The ability of central governing bodies like the General Assembly and ECOSOC to provide effective guidance, coordination and oversight of the UN development system, including the implementation of system-wide mandates, is limited, as their resolutions are not automatically implemented by entity-specific governing bodies. The non-hierarchical character of inter-agency mechanisms like the United Nations Sustainable Development Group, relying on voluntary participation and decision-making by consensus and not formally accountable, through the Secretary-General, to central governing bodies, has also provided little incentives for UN entities to capitalize on opportunities for synergy in programming and operations in the delivery of operational activities. Member States have been reluctant to make inter-agency mechanisms like the UN Sustainable Development Group formally accountable, through the Secretary-General, to central governing bodies such as ECOSOC for the implementation of system-wide mandates. The performance of governing bodies in the UN development system, when measured as their engagement and ownership of the strategic planning process, varies significantly. Of the fourteen governing bodies subject to a performance assessment, those of ICAO, IMO, WHO and FAO stood out in terms of their engagement and ownership of the strategic planning process. In these four entities, the strategic planning process is led and owned by the respective governing body (principal) rather than the organizational leadership (agent). Other governing bodies play a less influential role in this process vis-à-vis the organizational leadership. Seven institutional rules appear to be particularly important in explaining the strong ownership and engagement of governing bodies of the strategic planning process, namely: (a) form of funding, (b) participation by technical experts, (c) establishment of technical subsidiary bodies, (d) a technical decision-making process, (e) decisions adopted by majority voting, (f) technically-oriented decisions and (g) criteria-based composition. The findings of the research and analysis conducted in the dissertation show that many governing bodies in the UN development system are not able to perform their mandated role and functions; representation in governing bodies is often not equitable, transparent and effective; and central governing bodies like the General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council are not equipped to ensure that UN entities operate as a coherent system. Looking ahead, it may be particularly important for Member States to consider establishing a unified governance arrangement for the UN development system; adopting equitable, transparent and effective rules for the composition of governing bodies; ensuring the participation of experts in governance processes; and strengthening the working methods of governing bodies, including the efficiency of meetings and documentation and the quality of secretariat support.
New Resorption Pathways in Polycaprolactone: Degradation; roles of Mononuclear and Multinucleated Giant Cells
(Aarhus University, Faculty of Health, Programme in Medicine, 2015-07-13) Einarsson, Halldór Bjarki; Cody Eric Bünger; Programme in Medicine; Faculty of Health
The Role of Government in Economic Growth and Development: A Comparative Study of Malta and Iceland 1960-1980
(University of Malta, Faculty of Arts, Department of History, 2024) Jónsson, Sigfús; Dominic Fenech; Department of History; Faculty of Arts
This is a comparative study of the two small island states of Iceland and Malta in 1960-2000. It focuses on the role of the two governments as they enacted public policies, intervened in the functioning of their economies and foreign trade, invested in infrastructure, enhanced human capital and developed welfare states. The governments aspired to boost economic growth, improve quality of life, raise living standards, increase exports, combat recessions, create jobs, reduce trade and economic volatility, reap political gains and advance foreign relations. The thesis compares economic and political developments and their interplay, advancing international relations and different routes to European cooperation. With their emerging public sectors, political systems, and political customs and conflicts, both island states tried to secure their rights, livelihoods and positions amongst other European nations. Around 1960, Iceland´s economy was relatively advanced compared to Malta. Iceland was a financially self-standing republic, financing growth through exports, foreign loans, Marshall Aid and locally accumulated capital; and gifted with prolific fishing grounds and rich renewable energy resources. The national economy was vulnerable due to dependency on the volatile fishery and its export markets. However, Iceland could not yet control and manage the fishing grounds, as they were open for foreign deep-sea trawlers until the mid-1970s. Iceland maintained its focus on developing the fishery further during the last quarter of the twentieth century but with parallel government-driven developments in the power sector, while foreign investors built the associated power-intensive industries. A transferable quota system was introduced and shaped in the fisheries from 1984 to the 1990s. The new system increased efficiencies and labour productivity and reduced the over-capacity of fleet and plants. The 1970s and 1980s were marked by slack macroeconomic policies - hyperinflation, frequent devaluations of the ISK, rampant over-investments, subsidies in farming and uneconomical redistributive systems in fisheries. The economy became more liberal, diversified, and productive in the 1990s, helped by the European Economic Area Agreement, which became effective in 1994. In contrast to Iceland, Malta pursued rather stable macroeconomic policies throughout the period considered. In the 1960s, Malta was at first preoccupied with the politics and administrative issues of independence, which was achieved in 1964, and then during the remainder of the decade with preparations for diversifying and strengthening the economy in iv reaction to a massive down-scaling of the workforce in the dockyards and the British services. The 1960s saw a large-scale emigration. Based on local development plans and in line with advice from foreign consultants, manufacturing for exports was targeted, and foreign technology and investments were attracted to Malta. Industrial estates were built, and incentives offered to foreign investors. Manufacturing firms, e.g. in textiles, electronics and pharmaceuticals, set up plants in Malta. New hotels were built in the 1960s, initiating a growing tourism industry. Air Malta was founded, and Malta became a popular tourist destination. In the 1990s and the 2000s, financial services emerged as another successful economic initiative. While Iceland restricted foreign investments and the shareholding of foreign firms in its strategic sectors, i.e., the fishery and renewable power production, Malta used foreign investments to its advantage. Iceland and Malta took steps in easing foreign trade restrictions. Iceland made its first move in liberalising domestic trade in 1960 and took a further step when it joined EFTA in 1970, involving a customs union with the EFTA countries. That same year, Malta signed an Association Agreement with the European Economic Community (EEC), creating a customs union based on free trade between Malta and the EEC. Malta developed a rather centralised political system, while Iceland evolved a more decentralised system. Malta inherited its political system from Britain, and Iceland its system from Denmark. Both had self-government, preceding the republic in Iceland (1944) and independence in Malta (1964). The political system in Malta paved the way for two-party politics, with one party in power and the other in opposition. Meanwhile, the Icelandic system favoured multi-party politics, which needed coalitions of 2-4 parties at any time for a majority in the parliament. Two government levels made the political processes in Iceland more complicated than in Malta, as many policies and programs had to be negotiated between the state, the local authorities, the trade unions and business federations. One of the foremost differences between the two island states was the size of the landmass, topography, climate and location. It resulted in dissimilar political systems with a strong geographical dimension in Iceland. Their dissimilar location in the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean swayed their choices of foreign trading partners and political allies towards adjacent neighbourly countries.
The effects of losartan and diazepam on emotional processing
(University of Oxford, Kellogg College, Department of Psychiatry, 2021) Thoroddsen, Theodora A.; Andrea Reinecke, Catherine Harmer; Department of Psychiatry; Kellogg College
Given the prevalence and substantial economic costs of anxiety disorders, and the shortcomings of current treatments, there is dire need for research that helps inform the development of new treatments and medications. The aim of this thesis was to further our understanding of the effects of two medications relevant to anxiety, losartan and diazepam, to help inform the use of existing treatments and lead to more effective ones. Research has indicated that the angiotensin receptor antagonist losartan may potentially be a promising candidate to enhance the efficacy of exposure-based therapies. It however remains to be fully clarified how losartan affects some of the mechanisms relevant to exposure success. In the first study, a single dose of losartan was shown to increase activation in the paracingulate gyrus, insular cortex, lingual gyrus, and fusiform gyrus in healthy, high trait anxious volunteers, which possibly reflects modulation of higher-order visual processing. There was however no evidence found for an effect of losartan on neural responses in the hippocampus during non-emotional memory encoding. Losartan was also shown to increase positive attentional bias, which was reflected in attention being more firmly held by positive stimuli compared to neutral stimuli. Given that both greater reactivity in higher-order visual regions and positive valence training have been shown to be relevant for therapy success, these results may provide further support that losartan might potentially have synergistic effects with exposure therapy, but this remains to be tested directly. The most common pharmacological treatments for anxiety disorders include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and benzodiazepines, but both groups of medications have limitations. A better understanding of how existing medications exert their anxiolytic effects may help guide development of new medications. As benzodiazepines are not effective in treating depression, researching their effects provide a means of teasing apart antidepressant and anxiolytic effects. A comprehensive understanding of the cognitive neuropsychological mechanisms behind their anxiolytic effects is still lacking. In the second study, a 7-day treatment of diazepam was shown to lower connectivity between the amygdala and the pre- and post-central gyrus during cognitive reappraisal, and between limbic regions and the precuneous cortex in response to aversive pictures in healthy volunteers. The treatment also led to a decrease in activation in the right vlPFC during reappraisal, and to an increase in activation in the left vlPFC and right ACC in response to positive stimuli, without any subjective changes in mood and state anxiety. Diazepam may thus potentially be exerting its short-term anxiolytic effects by modulating activity within these brain areas. Taken together, these findings provide valuable insights into potential mechanisms through which diazepam and losartan may exert their therapeutic effects. A better understanding of these mechanisms can hopefully help inform the development of future anxiolytics and combination treatments.
The relationship between international and national law: re-visiting concepts of dualism and monism
(University of Helsinki, Faculty of Law, 2022-01-14) Ingadóttir, Þórdís; Jan Klabbers; Faculty of Law; oikeustieteellinen tiedekunta
The relationship between international and national law is increasingly being tested by jurisdictions and decisions of international courts. International courts have multiplied in the last two decades and have become permanent and active participants in the international arena. States and international organizations have considered the establishment and jurisdiction of such dispute settlement bodies vital for the enforcement of international law obligations of both states and individuals. States have undertaken an international obligation to comply with decisions of international courts. Particularly, in light of the enhanced role of international courts with respect to the enforcement of human rights and individual criminal responsibility, their jurisdiction and decisions have required major implementation at the national level. The authority of international courts calls for a theoretical understanding of the relations between international and national law. In only a short time, their authority has put into the spotlight fundamental principles of international law, such as human rights, criminal responsibility of individuals for international crimes, states’ responsibility, enforcement by international actors, and remedies. These areas of law are inter-dependent, both in substance and space. International human rights and individual criminal responsibility for serious crimes are matters of international law, undertaken and enforced at the international level, but to be realized at the national level. At both levels, every day practice illustrates the dire need of a theoretical understanding of the multilayered situation. Conventional application of established legal doctrines has often proved to be conflicting and unsatisfactory. Facing the dilemma, a grander strategy is needed. This thesis presents a study on this new phenomenon from a variety of perspectives. The six publications included study international legal norms that seek to activate domestic legal system, enforcement of international courts, and implementation at the national level (in particular in the Nordic countries). These studies are mainly in the area of international human rights, international humanitarian law, and international criminal law. The summary places the published text in a theoretical, historical and analytical context. The primary theoretical foundation of the relations between international and national law are the theories of dualism and monism. While set out in the nineteenth century, the theories have remained the main foundation for the kinship. The summary revisits and tests the components of these theories in light of the case studies. It concludes that the reliance of the theories is problematic, as their key foundations do not hold. This situation has real-world ramifications as actors with major interests at hand, primarily individuals, find themselves at times trapped, and left with a false promise of law.
A Pre-Tensioned Bridge Bent System for Accelerated Bridge Construction
(University of Washington, 2015) Haraldsson, Ólafur Sveinn; Marc O. Eberhard and John F. Stanton
Nearly all bridge bents (intermediate supports) are constructed of cast-in-place reinforced concrete. Such bridges have served the nation well in the past, but to meet current design expectations, they need to be improved in three areas: 1) speed of construction, 2) seismic resiliency, and 3) durability. Building on previous research at the University of Washington (Hieber et al. 2005, Wacker et al. 2005, Pang et al. 2010, and Haraldsson et al. 2013), a new pre-tensioned bent system has been developed to address these needs. The system consists of 1) precast technology that reduces construction time, 2) unbonded pre-tensioning that minimizes post-earthquake displacements, and 3) high-performance materials that extend the bridge’s life-span. Davis et al. (2012) tested a version of the system using conventional concrete in the plastic hinge regions. They found that pre-tensioning improved the system’s re-centering capabilities but led to earlier bar buckling and bar fracture than in previously tested RC columns. In order to delay bar buckling and bar fracture, the system was modified to include Hybrid Fiber Reinforced Concrete (HyFRC) in the plastic hinge regions. This composite concrete has been shown to exhibit superior durability and cracking resistance (Ostertag et al. 2007). The effect of the HyFRC on the pre-tensioned bent system was investigated both with quasistatic and dynamic tests. The quasi-static tests showed that using HyFRC in the plastic hinge region increased column ductility; in all cases the column maintained more than 80% of its strength up to a drift ratio of 10%. The HyFRC also delayed spalling of the concrete, but it did not significantly increase the drift ratios at the onset of bar buckling and bar fracture. The shaketable tests of a cantilever column, which was designed to re-center up to a drift ratio of 3.0%, showed that the new system had lower expected residual drifts than columns constructed with conventional cast-in place methods. The pre-tensioned column had a residual drift of 0.23% after experiencing a peak drift ratio of 5.5%. In contrast, the companion reference column, constructed using cast-in-place technology, had a residual drift ratio of 0.83% after experiencing a peak drift ratio of 5.7%. A numerical model in OpenSees was developed and calibrated with a set of 34 RC quasistatic, cyclic tests. This model was calibrated using a concrete constitutive model that takes into account concrete early reloading, developed as part of this research, and used commonly used steel constitutive models; Giuffre-Menegotto-Pinto’s (Steel02) model, and Moehle and Kunnath’s (ReinforcingSteel) model. The simulations showed improved accuracy in comparison to previous research (e.g., Berry and Eberhard 2007), and showed that the response of the system was affected more by the chosen steel model than by the concrete model. The results of these simulations were used to make predictions of the response of five columns tested on the UC Berkeley shake table. These simulations showed that models built using the proposed strategy predict peak displacements quite accurately, especially at the yield and design level, but do not accurately capture residual displacements.
Translation and National clinical validation of the Nursing Management Minimum Data Set (NMMDS) in hospitals in the country of Iceland
(The University of Iowa, 2011) Harðardóttir, Guðrún Auður; Diane L. Huber
Rising health care costs place increased burden on patients, health care personnel, administrators and policymakers. Decisions in health care are influenced by data which can be transferred into valuable information and knowledge. Data sets that facilitate data collection, information management and knowledge building are needed by nurse managers to support administrative decision- making. The Nursing Management Minimum Data Set (NMMDS,,¦) offers a standardized method to capture core data that can be collected in information systems, shared and reused for multiple purposes to support safe and cost-effective care. The purpose of this descriptive study was to adapt to Iceland and clinically test the NMMDS-ICE in all adult inpatient care units in the country of Iceland (excluding psychiatry). The aims of the study were to 1) translate the NMMDS from source language (English) to target language (Icelandic); 2) to validate the translated instrument; and 3) to describe the environment, nursing care resources, and financial resources across acute adult inpatient care units in Iceland. Instrument development consisted of translation, expert validation, and psychometric testing. The target population was all adult acute care units in hospitals in Iceland, and the nurse managers (n=38) representing these units. Data collection included a mailed survey. The sample equaled the population. Furthermore, 134 staff nurses on these units (excluding staff nurses at Landspitali) completed a job satisfaction survey. Return rate was 74% for nurse managers and 71% for staff nurses. Semantic and content equivalence of the NMMDS-ICE was established. Five of seven subscales of the instrument received Cronbach¡¦s alpha score of 0.70 or higher. Results indicated that it was feasible to collect the NMMDS-ICE in hospitals in Iceland, albeit, there was an issue with time commitment to do so. The specialty services that best described the patient population were medical-, surgical services, birthing, and geriatrics. Furthermore, nurse managers seem to perceive good control on their units, and both nurse managers and staff nurses are satisfied with their job. A positive correlation was found between autonomy and satisfaction with nursing management, nursing administration, and own level of autonomy. Statistical differences were identified in environmental and staffing resources between hospitals.
Purity and Power: The Policy of Purism in Icelandic Nationalism and National Identity
(The New School for Social Research, 1999) Þórarinsdóttir, Hallfríður
This dissertation elucidates the adoption o f the notion o f purity and its central role in the process o f national identity making in Iceland. The purpose of such an examination is to add to anthropology's critical understanding of the joint processes of the production and reproduction symbolic power and national identity making. By tracing these processes historically, I demonstrate how the process o f Icelandic nation making cannot be understood except as a part o f a broader global development as well as a response to it. The dissertation reveals that the notion of purity, while most pronounced in linguistic nationalism is not limited to language. It can rather be seen as a central part o f a larger structure o f secular religion, emerging at time o f disintegration o f old socio-economic structures and securing its position in a world witnessing an increasingly intensified global homogenization on the levels o f economics, politics and social life. Icelandic language purism is only superficially linguistic but profoundly about legitimating the power o f those who possess standard Icelandic. Standard "pure" Icelandic is also a powerful mechanism o f social control serving as a major instrument in the formation and re-formation o f mental structures. Purism, is also central to Icelandic ideas about cultural and racial "origins" as reflected in national defense policies o f the Icelandic culture and nation. I conducted fieldwork in Iceland, focusing especially on the discourse on purity as represented amongst intellectuals, politicians and the general public on the level o f media and state-agencies. Through formal and informal interviews and participant observation at various state institutions (radio, parliament, colleges and university) and textual analysis I discovered increasing tension between the nationalistic notion o f purity and fundamental democratic principles o f the Icelandic nation-state, both o f which can be seen as part o f the globalization process. After revealing increased state-action and financial input to linguistic purity, the dissertation ends by highlighting how the idea of purity has in most recent years been exploited for commercial purposes taking to international marketing of Icelandic food products and o f Iceland as a tourist resort.
The Formation of Educational Reform as a Social Field in Iceland and the Social Strategies of Educationists, 1966-1991
(University of Wisconsin, 1991) Jóhannesson, Ingólfur Ásgeir
This study concerns a reform in elementary education in Iceland, beginning in the late 1960s. The reform has been presented as one of the key links in a chain of projects toward modernizing Iceland, and the educationists who were involved in the reform (reformers) typically argue for the reform on this basis. This view encompasses a belief in historical progress as well as a belief that scientific knowledge about democratic, child-centered, often social-progressive concerns can lead to a more just society. The thesis examines how a discussion based on human capital theories, developmental cognitivism, and child-centered perspectives collided with other educational discourses and practices in a "historical conjuncture," unique to the place and time (Iceland, 1966-1991). To account for the involvement of individuals (reformers) in the reform conjuncture of ideas and practices, a conceptual framework attributed to the French sociologist and anthropologist Pierre Bourdieu was adopted. This framework directs attention to individuals and their assumptions as parts of a relationally constructed social field which enables an objectification of individuals' involvement, viewing them as epistemic individuals who employ the discursive themes of the reform as social strategies to gain symbolic capital in social and political struggles. This framework suggests that people's simultaneous conscious and unconscious employment of social strategies towards gaining or maintaining status has contributed to the formation of the field of educational reform. The argument is about social change within the conjuncture: the story of how the reform discourse has "expanded" and assumed legitimacy over time, the social strategies of reformers to gain symbolic capital, and the changing patterns of relations within the field of educational reform in the last 25 years. This study focuses on the relationship between what goes without saying in the discourse on education in Iceland -- that is, the professionalization of progress and educational expertise. Thus the thesis challenges the perspective that the reform is ultimately as progressive as some proponents like to think and certainly not subversive as traditionalist and neo-conservative critics state.
Magnetometry and microscopy of cold atom clouds
(Faculty of Science and Technology of Århus University, 2019-11) Elíasson, Ottó
This thesis covers experimental work conducted within two distinct fields of cold-atom physics. The first part describes an experiment capable of spatially-selective dispersive measurements of a cold-atomic system in part or in whole, by virtue of a digital micromirror device (DMD). Atom clouds are trapped in optical tweezers made and controlled by an acousto-optical deflector. Two types of high-precision magnetometers are realised. One is vectorial and reaches a single-shot precision of dB = (100, 200) µG for the field components parallel and transversal to the probe light, exceeding a previous realisation by two orders of magnitude. The other is a scalar magnetometer based on Larmor precession and reaches dB = 30 µG, putting it on equal footing with other state-of-the-art cold-atom magnetometers. The second part is devoted to the characterisation and the first results of a new quantum gas microscope experiment. It features a 0.69 NA microscope objective for high-resolution fluorescence imaging of individual atoms trapped in deep optical lattices. The imaging system is shown to perform near the diffraction limit. By means of DMD-generated off-resonant tight optical tweezers, projected through the high-resolution optics, we can load only a few planes of a co-propagating 1D lattice. In a single realisation of the experiment we acquire multiple fluorescence images, where the objective is translated between images, bringing different planes of the optical lattices in focus. In this way we can tomographically reconstruct the atom distribution in 3D.
Full protection and security in International Law
(University of Vienna, 2012) Magnússon, Finnur; Reinisch, August
The thesis covers one of the investment standards of international investment law, namely the full protection and security standard. In Part I, the study is introduced in terms of structure and substance. Chapter 1 provides a description of the scope of the research topic and a definition of its terms and structure. Chapter 2 covers the historical development of the full protection and security standard. Part II deals with three fundamental issues concerning the standard: sources, interpretation and content. Chapter 3 contains a discussion dealing with the various sources of the standard. Each source will be studied independently. Chapter 4 will address general issues with regard to interpretation, such as to what extent the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties influences the process of interpretation. Chapter 5 deals with the content of the standard of full protection and security, including conceptual issues relating to the substantive elements of which the standard consists. Moreover, the chapter will ask questions as to which underlying issues are needed to explore when a due diligence assessment is made in order to determine whether a state has fulfilled its obligations to provide protection and security. Part III deals with issues relating to the violations of the standard. In Chapter 6, the violations of the standard and their many manifestations will be analyzed. The chapter will address whether certain fact-based scenarios can be established in which the standard is most commonly violated. Finally, Chapter 7 contains a summary of findings.
The PD-1 pathway and the complement system in systemic lupus erythematosus
(Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, 2009) Kristjánsdóttir, Helga
Autoimmune diseases occur in up to 3-5% of the general population and represent a diverse collection of diseases with regards to clinical manifestations. The unifying factor of autoimmune diseases is tissue and organ damage as a result of an immune response mounted against self-antigens. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is considered a prototype of human systemic autoimmune diseases. The etiology of SLE is as yet largely unknown, but both epidemiological and genetic data suggest an interplay between numerous and varying genetic and environmental factors. There is compelling evidence for a strong genetic component in SLE. The disease has a high λsibs value and familial clustering is apparent. Multiple susceptibility loci have been identified, some of which are syntenic between humans and mice and some of which overlap with other autoimmune diseases. This thesis is based on analysis of Icelandic multicase SLE families and Swedish SLE patients. Paper I is a study of the association of C4A protein deficiency (C4AQ0) with SLE in the multicase families and shows a significantly increased frequency of C4AQ0 in the families. The genetic basis for C4AQ0 varies and C4AQ0 is found on different MHC haplotypes, pointing to C4AQ0 as an independent risk factor for SLE. Paper II describes the association of low MBL serum levels with SLE in the families and identifies low MBL as risk factor for SLE in families that carry the defect. Low MBL was furthermore found to mediate an additive risk when found in combination with C4AQ0. In paper III cellular expression the PD-1 co-inhibitory receptor on T cells was studied. A polymorphism in the PDCD1 gene, PD-1.3A was previously associated with SLE in the multicase families. The polymorphism is thought to disrupt expression of the gene and may lead to decreased expression of the PD-1 receptor. The study demonstrates lower PD-1 expression in SLE patients and relatives in correlation to the PD-1.3A genotype. Paper IV is a compiled analysis of the SLE families, including PD-1.3A, C4AQ0, low MBL, autoimmune diseases and autoantibody profiles. The study demonstrates clustering of different autoimmune diseases and autoantibodies in families that are heterogenic with regards to the genetic susceptibility factors, PD-1.3A, C4AQ0 and low MBL.
Monogenic Traits Associated with Structural Variants in Chicken and Horse
(Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, 2015) Imsland, Freyja
Domestic animals have rich phenotypic diversity that can be explored to advance our understanding of the relationship between molecular genetics and phenotypic variation. Since the advent of second generation sequencing, it has become easier to identify structural variants and associate them with phenotypic outcomes. This thesis details studies on three such variants associated with monogenic traits. The first studies on Rose-comb in the chicken were published over a century ago, seminally describing Mendelian inheritance and epistatic interaction in animals. Homozygosity for the otherwise dominant Rose-comb allele was later associated with reduced rooster fertility. We show that a 7.38 Mb inversion is causal for Rose-comb, and that two alleles exist for Rose-comb, R1 and R2. A novel genomic context for the gene MNR2 is causative for the comb phenotype, and the bisection of the gene CCDC108 is associated with fertility issues. The recombined R2 allele has intact CCDC108, and normal fertility. The dominant phenotype Greying with Age in horses was previously associated with an intronic duplication in STX17. By utilising second generation sequencing we have examined the genomic region surrounding the duplication in detail, and excluded all other discovered variants as causative for Grey. Dun is the ancestral coat colour of equids, where the individual is mostly pale in colour, but carries intensely pigmented primitive markings, most notably a dorsal stripe. Dun is a dominant trait, and yet most domestic horses are non-dun in colour and intensely pigmented. We show that Dun colour is established by radially asymmetric expression of the transcription factor TBX3 in hair follicles. This results in a microscopic spotting phenotype on the level of the individual hair, giving the impression of pigment dilution. Non-dun colour is caused by two different alleles, non-dun1 and non-dun2, both of which disrupt the TBX3-mediated regulation of pigmentation. Non-dun1 is associated with a SNP variant 5 kb downstream of TBX3, and non-dun2 with a 1.6 kb deletion that overlaps the non-dun1 SNP. Homozygotes for non-dun2 show a more intensely pigmented appearance than horses with one or two non-dun1 alleles. We have also shown by genotyping of ancient DNA that non-dun1 predates domestication.
Traditions and Challenges: Special Support in Swedish Independent Compulsory Schools
(Mälardalen University, School of Education, Culture and Communication, Educational Sciences and Mathematics., 2015) Magnússon, Gunnlaugur
This thesis has two overarching aims. The first is to generate further knowledge about Swedish independent schools, specifically regarding the organisation and provision of special support and how these relate to special educational traditions and inclusive education. This is conducted through four empirical studies, utilising data gathered in two total population survey studies. The first survey was a total population study of Swedish independent compulsory schools (N = 686, response rate = 79%), and results from this study are presented in articles I, II and IV. Article III presents results derived from a total population survey of special pedagogues (SENCOs) and special education teachers in Sweden educated according to the degree ordinances of 2001, 2007 and 2008 (N = 4252, response rate = 75%). Article I contains a general description of special education issues in the total population of independent schools. Article II continues with comparisons of these issues in different groups of independent compulsory schools. Article III studies differences in organisational prioritisations regarding special support and special educators in municipal and independent schools. Finally, article IV presents qualitative content analysis of over 400 responses regarding special support at independent schools. The second overarching aim of the thesis is to further develop the discussions initiated in the articles about how special education and inclusive education can be understood in light of the education reforms that introduced the independent schools. A critical theoretical analysis and contextualization of the empirical results from the articles is conducted to explain and describe the consequences of the new (market) education paradigm. Results show that, generally, the independent schools have not challenged special educational traditions to a significant degree. Rather, traditional conceptions, explanations and organisational measures are reproduced, and in some cases enhanced, by market mechanisms. However, there are great differences between the different types of schools with regard to both their perspectives on special education and their organisational approaches. There are also indications that the principle of choice is limited for this pupil group as compared to some other groups. Additionally, the increasing clustering of pupils in need of special support at certain schools replicates a system with special schools. In this case, market mechanisms are contributing to a system that is in contradiction to the idea of an inclusive school system. The theoretical interpretation of the results suggests that Skrtic’s theory can largely explain the empirical patterns found. However, his theory gives rise to different predictions or potential scenarios depending on what parts of his theory are underscored. Moreover, his theory must be complemented with additional perspectives to more fully account for diversity within the results, particularly as the results indicate that discourses/paradigms of special education and inclusive education often occur simultaneously and can thus be seen as expressions of practices taking place in a complex social and political environment.
A theory of integration for design and planning based on the concept of complementarity
(University of California, Berkeley, Department of Landscape Architecture, 1987) Valsson, Trausti
Accidents between pedestrians, bicyclists and motorized vehicles: Accident risk and injury severity
(Faculty of Engineering, Lund University, 2015) Kröyer, Höskuldur R.G.; Andras Varhelyi; Thomas Jonsson
The aims of this work are to better understand (1) the relation between exposure and the risk of an accident between pedestrians and between motorized vehicles and between bicyclists and motorized vehicles occurring at urban intersections and (2) how the speed environment and the victim´s age relate to the injury severity/outcome once a pedestrian or a bicyclist has been struck by a motorized vehicle. Cross sectional studies are used, and the relations are analyzed using multinomial logit models, negative binomial regression and other statistical methods. The results show that there is a positive correlation between the exposure of pedestrians, bicyclists and motorized vehicles and the number of accidents, i.e. the more road users there are, the more accidents occur. The models also suggest that this relation is non-linear; the accident risk per road user is lower at sites where the exposure is greater (safety in numbers effect). Furthermore, the results show safety in numbers effect for single pedestrian accidents, which might suggest that the underlying reasons for this effect is more complex than previously assumed. The thesis suggest an alternative way to interpret risk values and risk curves for injury severity/outcome (if one is involved in an accident), in which differences arise depending on whether the aim is to interpret the relation from an individual perspective or from the perspective of society as a whole. The results furthermore show a strong correlation between the speed environment, the age of the victim and the injury severity/outcome. A considerable proportion of the serious injuries occurs in low speed environments, seniors suffer more serious injuries than younger pedestrians and cyclists do, and the effects differ substantially for struck pedestrians versus struck bicyclists.
Effects of perinatal distress, satisfaction in partner relationship and social support on pregnancy and outcome of childbirth
(Linnaeus University Press, 2019) Jonsdottir, Sigridur Sia
Aim: The aim of this thesis was to achieve a deeper understanding of the situation among women experiencing perinatal distress during pregnancy and childbirth and the effects that dissatisfaction in partner relationship and weak social support from family and friends could have on pregnancy and childbirth. Methods: Following screening for perinatal distress, 562 expecting mothers came for a semi-structured interview. This screening, done with the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales and the Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale, categorized 360 (64.1%) women into the perinatal distressed group (PDG) and 202 (35.9%) into the non-distressed group (NDG). During the interview women answered the Dyadic Adjustment Scale and the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. Data were collected with these instruments for study I. Additional data for the three other studies were gathered from the women´s pregnancy records (II), electronic medical records (II, III), and childbirth records (IV). Results of the four studies were obtained by using descriptive statistics; parametric and nonparametric statistics and regression modeling. Results: Women in the PDG were significantly more likely than the NDG to be dissatisfied in their partner relationship, continue smoking during pregnancy, be dissatisfied with division of household tasks and child-rearing, have elementary or lower education, and to be students or unemployed. They were also significantly more likely to experience fatigue, vomiting and pelvic girdle pain during pregnancy. Women in the PDG who received weak family support reported nausea and heartburn more frequently than those with strong family support. Women in the PDG utilized more antenatal care service and were allocated more part time as well as earlier sick leaves during pregnancy, than those in the NDG. Women in the PDG were significantly more likely to use epidural anesthesia as a single pain management during labor. Conclusion: Perinatal distress affects pregnancy and childbirth. It is more common among women who are dissatisfied in their partner relationship and with the division of household tasks and child-rearing. Perception of weak social support also affects pregnancy among distressed women. Distressed women along with their partners and families should be offered support and consultation to relieve distress and strengthen their bonds during pregnancy and childbirth.
Macrofinancial linkages and crises in small open economies
(Aarhus BSS, Aarhus University, 2016) Ólafsson, Þorvarður Tjörvi
Nonparametric detection and estimation of highly oscillatory signals
(California Institute of Technology, 2008) Helgason, Hannes; Emmanuel J. Candes
This thesis considers the problem of detecting and estimating highly oscillatory signals from noisy measurements. These signals are often referred to as chirps in the literature; they are found everywhere in nature, and frequently arise in scientific and engineering problems. Mathematically, they can be written in the general form A(t) exp(ilambda varphi(t)), where lambda is a large constant base frequency, the phase varphi(t) is time-varying, and the envelope A(t) is slowly varying. Given a sequence of noisy measurements, we study two problems seperately: 1) the problem of testing whether or not there is a chirp hidden in the noisy data, and 2) the problem of estimating this chirp from the data. This thesis introduces novel, flexible and practical strategies for addressing these important nonparametric statistical problems. The main idea is to calculate correlations of the data with a rich family of local templates in a first step, the multiscale chirplets, and in a second step, search for meaningful aggregations or chains of chirplets which provide a good global fit to the data. From a physical viewpoint, these chains correspond to realistic signals since they model arbitrary chirps. From an algorithmic viewpoint, these chains are identified as paths in a convenient graph. The key point is that this important underlying graph structure allows to unleash very effective algorithms such as network flow algorithms for finding those chains which optimize a near optimal trade-off between goodness of fit and complexity. Our estimation procedures provide provably near optimal performance over a wide range of chirps and numerical experiments show that both our detection and estimation procedures perform exceptionally well over a broad class of chirps. This thesis also introduces general strategies for extracting signals of unknown duration in long streams of data when we have no idea where these signals may be. The approach is leveraging testing methods designed to detect the presence of signals with known time support. Underlying our methods is a general abstraction which postulates an abstract statistical problem of detecting paths in graphs which have random variables attached to their vertices. The formulation of this problem was inspired by our chirp detection methods and is of great independent interest.
Myc family of genes; structure, expression, and activation in tumor pathogenesis.
(Karolinska Institutet, Department of Tumor Biology, 1989-10-27) Ingvarsson, Sigurður; George Klein
The aim of this study has been tq identify the structural changes during c-myc activation · in relation to tumor pathogenesis, to characterize the Bmyc gene, and to compare the structure and expression of myc gene family members. The myc family members are dispersed over the rat and mouse genomes and are localized on different chromosomes. C-myc and Nmyc encode proteins that bind to different nuclear structures. Aberrant expression of c-myc is believed to contribute to the pathogenesis of many different tumors. Our studies on the rat immunocytoma have shown that chromosome translocations juxtapose c-myc and IgH-derived sequences in three B cell tumors in three different species. Juxtaposition of c-myc to an immunoglobulin locus and subsequent constitutive expression is regarded as an essential step in the genesis of mouse plasmacytoma, rat immunocytoma, and human Burkitt lymphoma. C-myc is regularly expressed in a wide variety of proliferating cells while Nmyc and Lmyc expression is limited to certain developmental stages and cell types. Bmyc has been isolated on the basis of the homology to c-myc second exon. Many tissues express Bmyc, independently of their developmental stage. During the embryonic development of the mouse and rat, c-myc, Nmyc, Lmyc, and Bmyc are expressed in different regions, and the genes show different expression pattern in F9 embryonal carcinoma cells during growth stimulation, suggesting independent regulation. C-myc, Nmyc, and Lmyc are downregulated during differentiation of F9 cells to visceral endoderm, while Bmyc is constantly expressed at low level in all stages. Inhibition of protein synthesis induces an elevation of c-myc, Lmyc, and Bmyc transcripts, suggesting that the genes are downregulated by a short-lived protein(s). Mitogenic stimulation with insulin and transferrin do not affect Nmyc, Lmyc, and Bmyc mRNA, while c-myc is upregulated. The rat Bmyc gene contains sequences related to the central part of c-myc, namely the first intron and the second exon, and the noncoding part of the third exon. The homology drops in the 3' part of the c-myc second exon, but continues in the noncoding part of the third exon. The total predicted coding region of the Bmyc has been sequenced and a bacterial tryptophanE fusion protein has been made. The lack of coding sequences in Bmyc, corresponding the third exon of the c-myc, which is thought to be important for nuclear localization, DNA binding, transforming activity, and the putative protein destabilation signal, suggests that the Bmyc and c-myc gene products may have distinct activities. Still, one of the two putative domains responsible for transformation activity of c-myc is found in the Bmyc sequence. These findings are discussed in the context of potential functional domains and the possibility of overlapping and distinct activities of myc -family proteins.

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