Lifandi texti - Áhrif þýðinga á sögu leiklistariðkunar á Íslandi
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Útgefandi
Háskóli Íslands, Hugvísindasvið, Íslensku og menningardeild
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Í þessari rannsókn — sem ég kýs að kalla „Lifandi texta“ þar sem hún snýr fyrst og fremst að texta sem ætlaður er til lifandi flutnings af leiksviði — verður saga og þróun leiklistariðkunar á Íslandi rakin út frá hlutverki og vægi erlendra áhrifa og fyrirmynda. Þýðingar erlendra leikrita eru í kjarna rannsóknarinnar en einnig margvísleg hagræðing og endurritun texta fyrir leiksvið. Samhliða verður leitast við að varpa ljósi á þýðingarhugtakið með vísan til þýðingasögunnar og helstu fræðikenninga á því sviði, en með sérstöku tilliti til leikbókmennta og sviðshandrita, eða þess sem tekur til eða heimfæra má upp á slíkan texta.
Helstu rannsóknarspurningarnar snúa að erlendum áhrifum, hvaðan þau komu, hvernig þau birtust og síðast en ekki síst hvaða merkjanlegu spor þau skildu eftir sig – og þar með vægi þeirra og áhrif á þróun leiklistarinnar í landinu. Niðurstöður rannsóknarinnar sýna að erlendar fyrirmyndir hafi vísað veginn í árdaga og að stælingar erlendra gamanleikja hafi verið sá efniviður sem gerði leiklistinni kleift að festa rætur á Íslandi. Íslensk leiklist og innlend leikritun rekur þannig upphaf sitt til þýðinga, auk þess sem ýmiss konar erlend áhrif og þýðingar í margbreytilegum og margvíslegum myndum og skilningi þess orðs, hafa til þessa dags stuðlað að áframhaldandi vexti starfsins og viðgangi þess.
Í fyrsta kafla ritgerðarinnar er fjallað um þýðingar og þróun fræðigreinarinnar í stærra samhengi. Leitast er við að varpa ljósi á stefnumótandi skoðanir skálda og heimspekinga fyrri tíðar og athyglinni síðan beint að Íslandi og staðan hér á landi rakin að nokkru. Staldrað er við fyrstu þýðingar fagurbókmennta á síðari öldum á Íslandi og nálgun þýðenda er sett í samhengi við orðræðuna um mismunandi nálgun þýðenda að bókmenntatexta, en hér á landi voru það ljóðaþýðendur sem ruddu brautina og settu þeim sem á eftir komu fagurfræðileg og skáldskaparleg viðmið, ekki síst þýðendum bundins leiktexta. Umræðunnar um sérstöðu leiktexta er einnig getið og hugmynda þeirra fræðimanna sem einna fyrstir settu fram hugmyndir um æskilega nálgun að slíkum textum.
Í öðrum kafla ritgerðarinnar er saga leiklistariðkunar í landinu rakin að nokkru og vísað til dæma af hlutverkaleikjum og skemmtanahaldi á fyrri öldum sem rekja má til þeirrar norrænu arfleifðar sem landnemar báru með sér til landsins. Því er síðan fylgt eftir hvernig þeirri arfleifð reiddi af í gegnum aldirnar og þá hvernig flest það sem menn gerðu sér til skemmtunar féll í ónáð eða var beinlínis bannað. Þrátt fyrir það var það látið óáreitt þegar hlutverkaleikir tóku að þrífast á skólaskemmtunum í Latínuskólanum í Skálholti og á átjándu öld og rakið hvernig þeir leikir þróuðust smám saman í frumstæða leiklistariðkun, en færð eru rök fyrir því að það starf hafi markað upphafið að ástundun þeirrar listgreinar í landinu í nútímaskilningi þess orðs. Sagan er síðan rakin frá því að Latínuskólinn flutti endanlega til Reykjavíkur um miðja nítjándu öld og leikstarf og skemmtanir skólapilta urðu hluti af bæjarmenningunni. Einstaklingar í bænum stóðu einnig fyrir stöku leiksýningum og fljótlega voru stofnaðir leikhópar og félög um starfið. Efniviðurinn var að mestu evrópskir gamanleikir, aðallega danskir, sem bárust til landsins í gegnum Kaupmannahöfn. Sumt var leikið á dönsku, sérstaklega framan af, annað í íslenskum þýðingum, stælingum eða staðfærslum, eins og vísað er til með dæmum. Sagan er síðan rakin til loka nítjándu aldar og getið um hvernig erlendar fyrirmyndir urðu aflvaki fyrstu innlendu leikritanna sem náðu máli. Í kaflanum er einnig komið inn á hina menningarpólitísku umræðu og leikritaþýðingar sem hluta af endurreisn þjóðtungunnar.
Í þriðja kafla ritgerðarinnar er athyglinni beint sérstaklega að þýðingum sígildra leikbókmennta. Yfirlýst markmið var að reyna á þanþol og blæbrigði tungumálsins og sýna fram á hæfni þess til að skila stórbrotnum erlendum leikskáldskap. Lýsandi dæmi eru tekin úr fyrstu þýðingum sígildra leikbókmennta á íslensku og vitnað til þeirrar umræðu sem fylgdi útgáfu þeirra á prenti. Samhliða er komið inn á kenninguna um fjölkerfi samfélagsins, eða helstu ytri áhrifaþætti og viðleitni áhrifavalda til að stýra umræðunni. Einnig er í kaflanum varpað ljósi á stöðu leikrita og leikbókmennta innan bókmenntakerfisins á Íslandi, en með vönduðum þýðingum sígildra leikrita stækkaði mengi leikbókmennta auk þess sem þýðingar sköpuðu fordæmi og urðu grundvöllur frekari þróunar.
Í kafla fjögur er innlend leiklistarsaga undir, allt frá því að leiklistarstarf í Reykjavík varð nokkuð samfellt við lok nítjándu aldar til fullgildrar atvinnustarfsemi um miðja tuttugustu öldina og áfram inn á fyrsta fjórðung þeirrar tuttugustu og fyrstu. Framboð leikrita er rannsakað sérstaklega og sýnt fram á að þýdd erlend leikrit hafi verið í meirihluta sviðsettra verka og sá efniviður sem fleytti starfinu áfram. Einnig er varpað ljósi á hvernig erlendarstefnur og straumar höfðu áhrif á verkefnaval og fólu í sér nýjar áskoranir. Sérstaða leiktexta er áréttuð og þær kröfur sem gera verður tiltexta sem beinlínis er þýddur til lifandi flutnings á leiksviði. Umræðan um skort á frambærilegum innlendum leikritum varð hávær með opnun Þjóðleikhússins og leikskáldunum kennt um, en starfsumhverfi höfunda var lítt hvetjandi, eins og rakið er og sama átti við um þýðendur.
Í kafla fimm er sjónum beint að þeim margvíslegu erlendu áhrifum sem bárust til landsins með fólki sem menntaði sig og starfaði erlendis. Nýsköpun og tilraunastarf í erlendum leikhúsum varð að fyrirmynd þegar hér voru stofnaðir fyrstu sjálfstæðu atvinnuleikhóparnir. Einnig er komið inn á þau áhrif sem erlendir gestaleikstjórar höfðu á starfsemi atvinnuleikhúsanna með því að kynna og fylgja eftir nýrri nálgun að sígildum leiktextum. Tekin dæmi af stefnumótandi samstarfi erlendra og innlendra leikhúslistamanna sem leiddi til ögrandi túlkunar á efni sígildra leikrita. Einnig er komið inn á endurritun og hagræðingu og þau verkfæri þýðingafræðinnar sem nýta má í þágu nýtúlkunar á sígildum leiktexta, sem aftur er til þess fallin að endurnýja erindi hans og tilhöfðun. Varpað er ljósi á slíka nýtúlkun með raundæmum úr íslensku leikhúsi á síðari árum. Samhliða er vitnað til listrænna stjórnenda og þýðenda þeirra sömu verkefna, þar sem þeir ræða og skýra ásetning sinn og nálgun. Hér er hið nýskapandi afl þýðinga í formi endurritunar og hagræðingar áréttað og um leið hið nýskapandi afl leiklistarinnar til að opna áhorfendum nýjan skilning á eldri texta.
Í kafla sex er athyglinni beint að höfundinum og þýðandanum í íslensku leikhúsi, en skilin þar á milli eru oft á tíðum óljós. Varpað er ljósi á hvað hugtakið „þýðing“ getur umfaðmað vítt svið, en það á jafnt við þegar texti er þýddur frá einu tungumáli til annars og þegar formi hugverks er breytt, eins og þegar skáldsaga eða annað höfundarverk á öðru formi er endurritað og því hagrætt fyrir leikhúsmiðilinn. Það á einnig við um túlkun leikara á leiksviði, eða þegar texti er túlkaður í lifandi flutningi. Í kaflanum er einnig varpað ljósi á stöðu höfundarins, sem lengst af stóð nokkuð höllum fæti í íslensku leikhúsi, en svo virðist sem það hafi tekið stjórnendur leikhúsanna tíma að átta sig á mikilvægi þess að hlúa að starfi þeirra. Sama á við um þýðendur sem oft fengu lítið svigrúm til að skila vinnu sinni. Hér er einnig er komið inn á umræðuna umleikgerðir og hvað telst fullgilt leikrit, eða hvað sé rétt að flokka sem höfundarverk og hvað endurvinnslu texta. Hér er dregið í efa það sjónarmið að uppruni hugmynda skipti sköpum og staðhæft að það sé úrvinnslan sem allt veltur á.
Staða innlendrar leikritunar og nýsköpunar er síðan rædd í sögulegu samhengi og umræðunni fylgt eftir með samanburði, sem byggir á samantekt á fjölda innlendra og erlendra leikrita á verkefnaskrá Leikfélags Reykjavíkur og Þjóðleikhússins frá upphafi og til leikársins 2024-2025. Í kaflanum eru birt súlurit og línurit sem byggja á þessum upplýsingum og sýna fram á yfirgnæfandi meirihluta þýddra leikrita á verkefnaskrá beggja leikhúsanna frá upphafi, en samantektin er birt í heild sinni í viðaukum.
Síðan eru niðurstöður dregnar saman og loksfylgja lokaorð höfundar.
In this study—which I choose to call “Living Texts,” as it deals primarily with texts intended for live performance on stage—the history and development of Icelandic theater practices are discussed with a view to the role and importance of foreign influences and paradigms. Translations of foreign plays are at the core of the research, alongside various adaptations and reworkings of texts for the stage. Simultaneously, an effort is made to shed light on the concept of translation with reference to the history of translation and the main academic theories in the field, with particular regard to plays and stage scripts. The main research questions revolve around foreign influences: where they came from, how they were applied, and particularly what traces they left behind—and thus what their importance and impact on the development of Icelandic theater has been. The conclusions of the study show that foreign works and texts were the leading models in the early days, and that the adaptation or imitation of foreign comedies provided the material that enabled drama to take root in Iceland. Icelandic drama and playwriting thus trace their origins to translations. In addition, diverse foreign influences and translations, in various manifestations and interpretations of the word, continue to contribute to the ongoing growth and development of the theater profession in Iceland to this very day. The first chapter discusses translations through time in a larger context, emphasizing the importance of cultural transmission through translation. An attempt is made to shed light on the strategic views of translators, poets, and philosophers of the past. Then, the focus shifts to Iceland and the history of translated texts into Icelandic, with translations of poetry pioneering the way. Their initiative is important in a historical context, as they set aesthetic standards for those who followed, especially translators of plays in verse. Furthermore, later poetry translators are mentioned and their approaches placed in the context of the discourse on different approaches to literary texts. Chapter two focuses on the history of theatrical practices in Iceland. In earlier centuries, entertainment and gatherings with theatrical references can largely be traced back to the settlement of Iceland. Over time, such activities were gradually restricted by the authorities; however, some theatrical rituals were allowed to flourish at the Latin School in Skálholt during festive seasons in the early eighteenth century. These activities developed over time into primitive performances, which mark the beginning of theater practice in the country in the modern sense of the word. When the Latin School moved to Reykjavík in the mid-nineteenth century, these activities became accessible to the public. Theatrically interested individuals in Reykjavík also staged occasional plays, and soon groups and societies were founded for this purpose. The material was mostly European comedies, mainly Danish, arriving in the country via Copenhagen. Some were performed in Danish, especially at first, others in Icelandic translations, adaptations, or localizations, as demonstrated with examples. Foreign models also became the driving force for playwriting. The chapter also touches on the cultural and political debate on independence and how translations played a vital part in the restoration of the national language. In the third chapter, attention is directed to translations of classical plays. The intention of the translators, as explained by themselves, was to test the flexibility and nuances of the Icelandic language and demonstrate its ability to deliver magnificent foreign dramatic literature. Illustrative examples are taken from these translations, and the discussion that followed their publication in print is cited, including the efforts of influential people to control the discourse. The chapter also sheds light on the position of plays within the literary system in Iceland, which were previously almost nonexistent but expanded and moved closer to the center with translations of classical plays. These translations also created precedents and became the basis for further development. Chapter four examines the history of Icelandic theater, from the time when theater practices in Reykjavík became fairly continuous in the late nineteenth century to full-fledged commercial activity in the mid-twentieth century and on into the first quarter of the twenty-first. Different approaches to translation are mentioned, drawing attention to the fact that translated foreign plays constituted the majority of staged plays through that period. It also outlines how foreign trends and currents influenced the choice of projects and entailed new challenges for translators, emphasizing the special features of texts intended for live performance on stage. The lack of presentable Icelandic plays became CO-evident with the opening of the National Theater, and as cited, playwrights were blamed for this; however, as argued, the working environment for authors was not very encouraging, and the same was true for translators. Chapter five focuses on how foreign models, innovations, and experimental work in theater reached the country through young people who were educated abroad, and how such activities became a model when the first independent professional theater groups were founded. The profound impact of foreign guest directors is also discussed. Examples of strategic collaboration between foreign and domestic theater artists that led to provocative interpretations of classic plays are cited. Rewriting and the manipulation of texts through translation for the benefit of a new interpretation are also discussed, with adaptations of classical plays being at the center of that discussion. Light is shed on the process of renewing classical plays for the purpose of updating their message and appeal, using examples from Icelandic theater in recent years. Artistic directors and translators of these projects are quoted discussing and clarifying their intentions and approaches. Here, the innovative power of translation in the form of rewriting and optimizing older texts is emphasized, as well as the innovative power of drama and theater to open up a new understanding of content and message for the audience. Chapter six focuses on the author and the translator in Icelandic theater, though the distinction between the two is often blurred. It sheds light on the broad scope that the term “translation” can encompass, as it applies equally when a text is translated from one language to another, when the form of an intellectual work is changed, and when a text is interpreted from a script to a live performance by actors on stage. The chapter also highlights the somewhat marginalized situation of the author in Icelandic theater, as it took theater managers a considerable amount of time to realize the importance of their work and create space for them to develop. It also touches on the discussion of what is rightly classified as an author’s original work versus an adaptation. Here, the view that the origin of ideas is crucial is questioned, asserting instead that everything depends on the processing of the idea. The importance of foreign translated plays in a historical context is emphasized and followed up by charts and graphs based on research mapping the number of domestic and foreign plays in the repertoires of the Reykjavík Theatre Company and the National Theatre from their establishment to the 2024–2025 season. This research is presented in appendices one and two. Finally, the results of the study are summarized, followed by the author's concluding remarks.
In this study—which I choose to call “Living Texts,” as it deals primarily with texts intended for live performance on stage—the history and development of Icelandic theater practices are discussed with a view to the role and importance of foreign influences and paradigms. Translations of foreign plays are at the core of the research, alongside various adaptations and reworkings of texts for the stage. Simultaneously, an effort is made to shed light on the concept of translation with reference to the history of translation and the main academic theories in the field, with particular regard to plays and stage scripts. The main research questions revolve around foreign influences: where they came from, how they were applied, and particularly what traces they left behind—and thus what their importance and impact on the development of Icelandic theater has been. The conclusions of the study show that foreign works and texts were the leading models in the early days, and that the adaptation or imitation of foreign comedies provided the material that enabled drama to take root in Iceland. Icelandic drama and playwriting thus trace their origins to translations. In addition, diverse foreign influences and translations, in various manifestations and interpretations of the word, continue to contribute to the ongoing growth and development of the theater profession in Iceland to this very day. The first chapter discusses translations through time in a larger context, emphasizing the importance of cultural transmission through translation. An attempt is made to shed light on the strategic views of translators, poets, and philosophers of the past. Then, the focus shifts to Iceland and the history of translated texts into Icelandic, with translations of poetry pioneering the way. Their initiative is important in a historical context, as they set aesthetic standards for those who followed, especially translators of plays in verse. Furthermore, later poetry translators are mentioned and their approaches placed in the context of the discourse on different approaches to literary texts. Chapter two focuses on the history of theatrical practices in Iceland. In earlier centuries, entertainment and gatherings with theatrical references can largely be traced back to the settlement of Iceland. Over time, such activities were gradually restricted by the authorities; however, some theatrical rituals were allowed to flourish at the Latin School in Skálholt during festive seasons in the early eighteenth century. These activities developed over time into primitive performances, which mark the beginning of theater practice in the country in the modern sense of the word. When the Latin School moved to Reykjavík in the mid-nineteenth century, these activities became accessible to the public. Theatrically interested individuals in Reykjavík also staged occasional plays, and soon groups and societies were founded for this purpose. The material was mostly European comedies, mainly Danish, arriving in the country via Copenhagen. Some were performed in Danish, especially at first, others in Icelandic translations, adaptations, or localizations, as demonstrated with examples. Foreign models also became the driving force for playwriting. The chapter also touches on the cultural and political debate on independence and how translations played a vital part in the restoration of the national language. In the third chapter, attention is directed to translations of classical plays. The intention of the translators, as explained by themselves, was to test the flexibility and nuances of the Icelandic language and demonstrate its ability to deliver magnificent foreign dramatic literature. Illustrative examples are taken from these translations, and the discussion that followed their publication in print is cited, including the efforts of influential people to control the discourse. The chapter also sheds light on the position of plays within the literary system in Iceland, which were previously almost nonexistent but expanded and moved closer to the center with translations of classical plays. These translations also created precedents and became the basis for further development. Chapter four examines the history of Icelandic theater, from the time when theater practices in Reykjavík became fairly continuous in the late nineteenth century to full-fledged commercial activity in the mid-twentieth century and on into the first quarter of the twenty-first. Different approaches to translation are mentioned, drawing attention to the fact that translated foreign plays constituted the majority of staged plays through that period. It also outlines how foreign trends and currents influenced the choice of projects and entailed new challenges for translators, emphasizing the special features of texts intended for live performance on stage. The lack of presentable Icelandic plays became CO-evident with the opening of the National Theater, and as cited, playwrights were blamed for this; however, as argued, the working environment for authors was not very encouraging, and the same was true for translators. Chapter five focuses on how foreign models, innovations, and experimental work in theater reached the country through young people who were educated abroad, and how such activities became a model when the first independent professional theater groups were founded. The profound impact of foreign guest directors is also discussed. Examples of strategic collaboration between foreign and domestic theater artists that led to provocative interpretations of classic plays are cited. Rewriting and the manipulation of texts through translation for the benefit of a new interpretation are also discussed, with adaptations of classical plays being at the center of that discussion. Light is shed on the process of renewing classical plays for the purpose of updating their message and appeal, using examples from Icelandic theater in recent years. Artistic directors and translators of these projects are quoted discussing and clarifying their intentions and approaches. Here, the innovative power of translation in the form of rewriting and optimizing older texts is emphasized, as well as the innovative power of drama and theater to open up a new understanding of content and message for the audience. Chapter six focuses on the author and the translator in Icelandic theater, though the distinction between the two is often blurred. It sheds light on the broad scope that the term “translation” can encompass, as it applies equally when a text is translated from one language to another, when the form of an intellectual work is changed, and when a text is interpreted from a script to a live performance by actors on stage. The chapter also highlights the somewhat marginalized situation of the author in Icelandic theater, as it took theater managers a considerable amount of time to realize the importance of their work and create space for them to develop. It also touches on the discussion of what is rightly classified as an author’s original work versus an adaptation. Here, the view that the origin of ideas is crucial is questioned, asserting instead that everything depends on the processing of the idea. The importance of foreign translated plays in a historical context is emphasized and followed up by charts and graphs based on research mapping the number of domestic and foreign plays in the repertoires of the Reykjavík Theatre Company and the National Theatre from their establishment to the 2024–2025 season. This research is presented in appendices one and two. Finally, the results of the study are summarized, followed by the author's concluding remarks.
Lýsing
Efnisorð
Leiklist, Leikrit, Þýðingar, Bókmenntir, Þjóðleikhús, Theatre, Acting, Translation, Literature, National theatre